[translation] Six Stages in the 500-Year History of World Socialism
from a series of CPC cadre lectures dated 2014
Lecture 1: Six Stages in the 500-Year History of World Socialism
Socialism, in a broad sense, encompasses a range of ideologies, theories, movements, and systems aimed at negating capitalism and establishing a superior societal form. It is a combination of theoretical thought, practical movements, and social institutions.
Section 1: The 500-Year History of World Socialism Divided into Six Stages
Socialism first emerged on the stage of history as a social ideology. Starting from the publication of Thomas More’s Utopia, considered the seminal work of utopian socialism, socialism has a history of about 500 years. Over this 500-year historical process, socialism has evolved from an ideology and a theory into a movement and a system. If we examine the development stages of socialism itself, following this long river of 500 years of history, humanity's relentless explorations and beautiful aspirations for socialism can be broadly divided into the following six stages:
Stage 1: The Rise and Development of Utopian Socialism
Since the emergence of the capitalist mode of production, "the appropriation by society of all the means of production has often been dreamed of, more or less vaguely, by individuals, as well as by sects, as the ideal of the future."* In response to the exploitation and injustice inherent in capitalism, socialist ideologies emerged, reflecting and representing the interests and aspirations of the early proletariat and working people. These ideologies envisioned a utopian society free from poverty and inequality. This period of utopian socialism spanned from the mid-16th century to the early 19th century.
Utopian socialism relentlessly exposed and criticized the foundations and the evils of capitalist society, awakening the consciousness of the working class and the laboring masses, and offering many positive claims and valuable speculations about a future society. Utopian socialism was a product of the historical conditions in which the capitalist mode of production had just emerged and had begun to develop, but this ideology was still very immature. The inherent contradictions of capitalism had not yet been fully exposed, and the antagonism and struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie had not yet fully unfolded. As such, utopian socialism was an immature ideology that reflected the interests and aspirations of the early proletariat.
Stage 2: The Establishment of Scientific Socialism
In this second stage, Marx and Engels established the theoretical system of scientific socialism, marking a pivotal shift from utopian to scientific socialism. By the 1840s, capitalism had undergone significant transformations, through the bourgeois revolutions and the Industrial Revolution. The bourgeoisie had attained dominance in both political and economic spheres, while the proletariat emerged as an independent political force, demanding a theory that represented their interests.
In response to this demand, Marx meticulously examined economic, political, and social conditions under capitalism. He both critiqued and built upon the insights of German classical philosophy, British classical political economy, and utopian socialism from France and England. Upon this foundation, he established the materialist conception of history and the theory of surplus value. By integrating these two theoretical pillars, Marx laid the groundwork for scientific socialism, accomplishing the remarkable leap from utopian to scientific socialism.
As socialism in practice began to unfold, Marx and Engels continued to enrich the principles of scientific socialism by summarizing the experiences of various class struggles. By the 1870s and 1880s, a comprehensive theoretical system of scientific socialism had taken shape. This system unveiled the laws governing the development of human society, illuminated the path towards socialism, and envisioned the bright future of a socialist society.
Stage 3: The Triumph of the October Revolution and the Realization of Socialism
This third stage witnessed the victory of the October Revolution under Lenin's leadership, marking a pivotal transition from theoretical socialism to its practical realization. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, world capitalism had undergone a metamorphosis from independent capitalism into monopoly capitalism. This transformation exacerbated the inherent contradictions within the capitalist world, ushering in a new era of imperialism and proletarian revolution.
Lenin's masterful application of scientific socialism to the realities of the Russian Revolution marked this transformative era, leading to the establishment of a comprehensive theory of proletarian party building. He meticulously crafted theoretical frameworks and strategies for the proletariat's participation in democratic revolutions. Notably, Lenin's groundbreaking contributions included the theory of imperialism, the possibility of socialist victory in one or several countries, as well as theorizing on behalf of national liberation movements in colonial nations. These profound insights collectively formed the foundation of Leninism.
Lenin's legacy lies in how he creatively inherited scientific socialism, and in his unwavering defense and dynamic development of scientific socialism. He provided astute solutions to a myriad of critical, theoretical, and practical issues confronting the international communist movement in the era of imperialism. Under his astute leadership, the Russian people achieved the resounding victory of the October Socialist Revolution, a momentous historical leap in the transformation of socialism from theory to practice.
Following the triumph of the October Revolution, Lenin embarked on a remarkable journey, leading the Russian people toward socialist transition and construction. Navigating uncharted territories, he delved into profound contemplation upon and an arduous exploration of the intricacies of building a socialist society. Lenin thoroughly examined the experiences of the October Revolution and the New Economic Policy, meticulously drawing insights from these transformative endeavors. With unwavering determination, he ventured into multifaceted explorations of the unique laws and patterns governing socialist construction in nations characterized by economic and cultural backwardness. Lenin's groundbreaking efforts not only enriched scientific socialism with fresh perspectives, but also provided invaluable contributions to its development for a new era.
Stage 4: The Establishment of the Soviet Socialist System and the Formation of the Soviet Model
This fourth stage witnessed the momentous establishment of the Soviet socialist system and the subsequent emergence of the Soviet model, marking a pivotal expansion of socialist practice from a single nation to multiple countries. Following Lenin's passing, Stalin assumed leadership of the Soviet Union, guiding the party and the people toward the construction of socialism. Under his leadership, the world's first socialist system was established, achieving remarkable advancements in socialist development. However, this period also saw the gradual formation of a highly centralized economic and political system, known as the Soviet model.
In the aftermath of World War II, the socialist system transcended the confines of a single nation, embarking on a trajectory of rapid development. Over a dozen socialist countries emerged across the Eurasian continent, their territories forming a contiguous expanse, encompassing nearly one-third of the world's population. The triumph of the Chinese Revolution further reshaped the global balance of power between socialism and capitalism.
The emergence of socialist nations gave rise to a formidable socialist camp, standing in stark contrast to the capitalist world. This marked a pivotal transformation, as socialism evolved from a single-nation endeavor to a multinational reality, representing the third great leap forward** for socialist ideals. As the first socialist nation, the Soviet Union played a pivotal role in disseminating the Soviet model to other socialist countries during this period of expansion.
However, by the 1950s, the inherent flaws and drawbacks of the traditional Soviet model became increasingly apparent. Socialist countries in Eastern Europe embarked on initial attempts to reform their economic and political systems, albeit with limited success. These reform efforts, despite their shortcomings, served as a catalyst for challenging the status quo and raised a series of fundamental questions regarding socialist theory. This discourse, rooted in both practical experiences and theoretical explorations, led to a deeper understanding of socialism.
Stage 5: The Chinese Revolution and the Exploration and Practice of Socialist Construction under Mao Zedong's Leadership
This fifth stage marked a transformative era in Chinese history, characterized by the triumph of the Chinese Revolution under the leadership of Mao Zedong and the subsequent exploration and practice of socialist construction. Since the mid-19th century, China had gradually succumbed to the aggression of Western powers, becoming a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. The Chinese nation was impoverished and weak, with its people suffering under immense hardship. In an attempt to salvage the nation from its dire straits, various ideologies and movements emerged, including reformism, liberalism, social democracy, anarchism, pragmatism, populism, and syndicalism. However, none of these approaches proved capable of resolving the fundamental issues concerning China's future and its destiny.
The resounding success of the October Revolution introduced Marxism-Leninism, offering a beacon of hope for the Chinese people. Embracing Marxism-Leninism and charting a path inspired by the Russian Revolution became the resolute choice of the Chinese people. Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the Communist Party of China (CPC) successfully integrated the fundamental principles of Marxism-Leninism with China’s concrete realities, leading to the victory of the New Democratic Revolution and the establishment of the People's Republic of China.
The triumph of the New Democratic Revolution and the subsequent establishment of the socialist system in China marked a pivotal moment in the country's history, representing the most profound and transformative social change ever recorded in its annals. This momentous achievement laid the fundamental political foundation and institutional framework for all subsequent progress and development within contemporary China.
Following the establishment of the socialist system, the CPC carefully considered the appropriate path for constructing socialism in a country characterized by significant economic and cultural backwardness. Recognizing the lessons and experiences of the Soviet Union, the CPC embarked on an independent exploration of a socialist development path tailored to China's unique circumstances. However, constrained by limitations in both understanding and practice, China's exploration of socialist construction, while yielding remarkable achievements, was also marred by serious setbacks. Despite the arduous and challenging nature of this exploration, the theoretical advancements and remarkable accomplishments attained by the CPC in socialist construction provided invaluable experiences, theoretical groundwork, and material foundations for ushering in a new historical era of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
Stage 6: China's Reform and Opening Up and the Exploration of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics
This 6th stage marked a transformative era in Chinese history, characterized by the CPC's historic decision to embark on reform and opening up, leading the people in pioneering and developing Socialism with Chinese Characteristics. This period witnessed a shift from a rigid, single development model of socialism to the exploration of diverse concrete forms of its implementation across different countries.
As time progressed, the inherent flaws of the Soviet model became increasingly apparent, posing a severe systemic obstacle to economic and social development. Practical experiences demonstrated that without fundamental reforms to the traditional socialist system, socialism would face an impasse. The reformist currents that emerged in socialist countries during the 1950s encountered setbacks and began to diverge in the late 1980s. Some reforms achieved initial successes, while others led to failure and the eventual transition to capitalism.
Facing the challenges of economic and social development in the 1980s, the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries attempted to implement reforms. However, under the strong influence of Western forces (as well as other forces), these reforms deviated from the correct direction. A complex interplay of historical and contemporary factors conspired to trigger upheaval in Eastern Europe and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, dealing a severe blow to world socialism and plunging the international communist movement into a low ebb. Despite these setbacks, the overarching trend of human social development remains unalterable.
In this new era, the CPC has masterfully integrated the fundamental principles of Marxism with the realities of contemporary China. Through the practice of reform and opening up and the pursuit of socialist modernization, the Party has pioneered and developed Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, fully demonstrating the inherent advantages and the vitality of the socialist system.
Following the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee, the CPC re-established the ideological line of “seeking truth from facts” and “liberating thought.” With remarkable political and theoretical courage, the CPC initiated the historic policy of reform and opening up. Drawing upon the lessons and experiences of socialist construction in various countries, the CPC deepened its understanding of the fundamental theoretical and practical questions of what socialism is and how to build it. This profound exploration led to the groundbreaking establishment and development of the path of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics. Its formation and evolution as a theoretical system, and its consolidation and refinement as an institutional framework have illuminated a bright future for the socialist cause.
Amidst a rapidly changing global landscape, Socialism with Chinese Characteristics has stood as a testament to the enduring vitality of scientific socialism. It serves as a profound harbinger of the new trends shaping the development of socialism in the 21st century.
Section 2: Lessons from the 500-Year History of World Socialism
The six stages of world socialism's 500-year history and their enduring lessons can be summarized as follows:
Lesson 1: Socialism stands as a testament to humanity's enduring pursuit of an ideal society, a culmination of the aspirations and struggles of generations of working people and their visionary thinkers to break free from oppression and dependence, seeking liberation and a more just world. As the most profound and transformative social ideal to emerge thus far, socialism has charted a new path for human development, illuminating a promising future, and exerting an unprecedented and profound impact on humanity.
Lesson 2: The 500-year history of world socialism is characterized by a rich diversity of perspectives and interpretations, reflecting the complex interplay of class interests, ideological debates, and evolving societal realities. As different groups sought to understand and apply socialist principles within their specific contexts, a multitude of socialist schools of thought emerged.
In 1848, the publication of the Communist Manifesto marked a pivotal moment in the history of socialist thought. With its brilliant and ingenious language, the Manifesto laid out the fundamental principles of scientific socialism, providing a theoretical foundation for this revolutionary ideology. The birth of scientific socialism represented a magnificent sunrise over the intellectual landscape of socialism.
Scientific socialism, grounded in the principles of materialist historical analysis and surplus value theory, emerged as a science of the laws governing the development of the proletarian liberation movement. It embraced the ultimate goal of liberating both the proletariat and all of humanity. The Communist Manifesto provided a theoretical framework for understanding the historical position and mission of the proletariat in resolving the fundamental contradictions of capitalist society, demonstrating the historical inevitability of socialism replacing capitalism. It also outlined the direction and path toward the proletariat's complete liberation. As a revolutionary and scientific doctrine, scientific socialism exerted a powerful and enduring influence on socialists worldwide, serving as a sharp ideological weapon and a grand banner of struggle for the proletariat and the broad masses of working people.
Lesson 3: The enduring relevance and vitality of scientific socialism. Over the 160 years since its inception, scientific socialism has undergone continuous developments and adaptations, demonstrating its enduring relevance and vitality. Inspired by the ideals of socialism, the global stage has bore witness to the rise and persistence of the mighty socialist movement. Guided by the banner of socialism, China has undergone its most profound historical transformations seen in a century, achieving independence and liberation, embarking on the path to prosperity and strength, and setting forth the bright prospect of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. With unwavering confidence, the 1.3 billion Chinese people are pursuing the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation, national prosperity, and individual happiness on the path of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics.
Lesson 4: Understanding the six periods in the 500-year history of world socialism can help CPC members and cadres in their systematic review of the historical development of world socialism, as they engage in scientific summations of the development experiences throughout world socialism, using a dialectical outlook to prognosticate on the future and destiny of world socialism. This endeavor should be firmly anchored in the principles of scientific socialism.
This endeavor will not only reflect the diversity of world socialism, but also highlight scientific socialism’s long history. It will not only reflect the complete historical picture of scientific socialism, but also highlight the formation and development of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics. It will not only help cadres grasp the ideological essence and development laws of scientific socialism from a holistic perspective, but also improve theoretical literacy, enhancing their ability to analyze and solve problems using the foundational stances, viewpoints, and methods of Marxism.
LECTURE APPENDIX: Overview of Research Specialities on Theoretical Issues within World Socialism
Research on Core Theoretical Issues
This area delves into the core theoretical principles and concepts of socialism, examining their evolution, application, and relevance in the contemporary world.
Research on Soviet Socialism
This area focuses on the historical trajectory of socialism in the Soviet Union, analyzing its successes, challenges, and ultimate collapse. It explores the factors that contributed to the rise and fall of the Soviet model, seeking lessons and insights for other socialist endeavors.
Research on Eastern European Socialism
This area examines the experiences of socialist countries in Eastern Europe, including their unique characteristics, developmental paths, and the factors that led to their demise. It seeks to understand the commonalities and divergences among these socialist experiments, drawing lessons for future socialist projects.
Research on Socialism in Vietnam, North Korea, Laos, and Cuba after the Collapse of the Soviet Union and Eastern European Socialism
This area explores the resilience and adaptability of socialism in these countries, examining how they have navigated the post-Cold War era and maintained their socialist identity while adapting to changing global dynamics.
Research on Communist Parties in Developed and Developing Countries without Governing Power
This area investigates the role and strategies of communist parties in countries where they are not in power, examining their contributions to political discourse, social movements, and the advancement of socialist ideals.
Research on Social Democracy and Social Democratic Parties
This area explores the evolution, ideologies, and practices of social democracy and social democratic parties, analyzing their relationship to socialism and their impact on contemporary political landscapes.
Research on Indigenous Socialism in Asian, African, and Latin American Countries
This area examines the unique forms and expressions of socialism that have emerged in these regions, considering their historical contexts, cultural influences, and contributions to the global socialist discourse.
Research on Trotskyist Socialism
This area delves into the theoretical and practical aspects of Trotskyist socialism, examining its critiques of mainstream socialist movements and its alternative visions for socialist transformation.
Research on Religious Socialism, Market Socialism, and Ecological Socialism
This area explores emerging socialist currents that integrate religious, market, or ecological principles into their frameworks, examining their theoretical underpinnings and potential contributions to socialist thought and practice.
Research on International Organizations
This area investigates the role and influence of international socialist organizations, examining their efforts to promote socialist ideals, coordinate activities among socialist movements, and address global challenges from a socialist perspective.
SOURCE: Central Compilation Bureau
*Frederick Engels, Anti-Dühring, in Marx and Engels Collected Works, vol. 25 (International Publishers, 1987), 268.
**CPC historiography details three historic leaps forward for socialism (社会主义的历史性三次飞跃). The first was the leap accomplished by Marx and Engels from utopian to scientific socialism. The second was the leap from theoretical socialism to applied socialism in power in the USSR. The third leap referenced above is the leap from socialism in a single country with a single model (Russia), to socialism in multiple countries under multiple models (China, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, etc.). These three historic leaps are not to be confused with the three historic leaps for the sinicization of Marxism (马克思主义中国化的三次历史性飞跃) namely, the development of Mao Zedong Thought, the development of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, and the development of Xi Jinping Thought. For more details in Chinese see: